"...the Future Is Already Her! It’s Just Not Very Evenly Distributed!!”1. Preamble
— Richard Heeks
Mpape Top-up
For all it is worth, one thing that has always baffled me as a young Nigerian, has been the tenacity and ingenuity displayed by my fellow countrymen. As a student in the early 90s, I wondered why all the petty traders sold the same seasonal fruits. Like a “seasonal harvest-sales culture” When it was the orange season, all the women would sell oranges, and when it was the cashew season, all of them would sell same. I couldn’t imagine how not one thought to create a niche market, by going solo to do something different.
Now as before, almost 2 decades on, I wondered why he was sitting there, in front of me. His wares cast to one side like he really didn’t care about them. He held in one hand, his head - aching... and in the other, he rubbed his leg – tired from walking the hot dusty streets of Abuja. One glance at his foot told me all there was to this drama. He had bruised his toes. I took pity on him, he couldn’t have been more than 13 years old, yet out of the dare need to feed, he had taken this “noble” cause to bring a top-up service to my phone. I felt sorry – and enquired how much it would cost to buy up all he had to sell, to enable him return home to nurse his busted toes. N5000 [1] he responded – I paid, he walked. I hoped he would rest, at least for today. But shocked I was, to learn he had limped off only to reappear with yet another batch – to continue in his toil to make ends meet on the sidewalks of Mpape[2].
2. Introduction
Changes in society as a result of increased international trade and cultural exchange, often called globalisation, have always had a significant impact on organisations and their Information Systems (IS). These changes are beginning to reopen research concerns in the area of development. These changes are contingent on the rapid inundation of IT in to less developing world. – leading to Development 2.0.
"...belle first[3]”Recent studies of the role of ICT in development exist (D´ıaz A & Urquhart (2009); (Hunt, 2001); Kanungo (2003); Salvador et al (2005). They all show the power of local knowledge and commitment to develop one’s community at play.
— An Africa Urban Cliche
These early research have all too often been one sided, like the horse and its bilkers – they have focused on the marginal benefits derivable from ICT4D or Development 2.0, unwittingly neglecting the negatives. This has encouraged more and more research and foreign aid, As William Eastly succinctly put it, “The big problem with foreign aid and other western efforts to transform the Rest is that [the]people paying the bills are rich people who have very little knowledge of poor people.” (Eastly, W. (2006). Without prejudice, this paper seeks to throw more light in this dark area to help researcher gain inside knowledge of the bitter realities that plague the so called “4th World”.
This paper is divided into 4; the first part reflects on literature and outlines development 2.0. The second part seeks to trace the origins and motivation of development 2.0. part three focuses the issue on digital inclusion as practiced in Nigeria, delineating all its flavours in rich detail. Part four critically analysis these initiatives against the global-world economy and the disenfranchised in Africa. Finally part six concludes and makes recommendations.
3. Definitions
We turn to Richard Heeks as an authority in the area of eGovernment and Development in the developing world. He contends that at last “we can celebrate the fact that the foundations and assumptions of international development are changing. The tools for a digital economy are now—and will increasingly be—in the hands of the world’s poor. (Heeks. R. B. 2010). This change has reshaped the world of development by underpinning the importance of technology as a change driver.
“In 1998, less than one out of every 100 inhabitants in developing countries was an Internet user. By 2008, that figure had risen to 22 out of every 100. In 1998, two out of every 100 inhabitants in developing countries was a mobile phone subscriber. By 2008, that figure was 55 out of every 100”. (ITU. 2009)."
...a critical aspect of industrial competitiveness will be the ability to adapt quickly to rapid technological developments and constantly changing market conditions”
— Nikerson
3.1. Development 2.0
“Development 2.0” is defined as the new IT-enabled models that can transform the processes and structures of development. – (Heeks, R. B. 2010)
Development 2.0 deals mainly with the role of ICT in development. Richard Heeks categorises it in the following three loose genres. Breaking away from traditional norms, these include -
a) New Relationships
- Connecting the excluded – bringing the digitally excluded within the digital fold
- Dis-intermediating – removing the middle man, constraining eGovernent service to fight corruption.
- Digital Production – the connected poor now have access to unique jobs/services which were lacking hitherto.
- Digital innovation – appropriating IT for other means, creating jobs.
- Collective Power – crowd sourcing – text-in eParticipation
- Social Enterprise-
Nowhere is this more evident, than in the area of mobile phones, where the poor, disenfranchised and excluded have evolved new unique ways to appropriate technology. The speed at which ICTs are diffusing has taken many observers by surprise. This is in no small part thanks to the mobile revolution. “With 4 billion mobile subscribers in the world” (United Nations, 2009 p. XI.) Mobile phones have emerged as the most widespread ICT in the developing world. (ibid. p.XIV) “An estimated two-thirds of the population [in Africa] now has access to a mobile phone. “Heeks, R.B. (2009).
African countries are pioneering mobile banking and electronic transactions services, like the m-Pesa service by Safaricom in Tanzania, and Airteks m-Chek and Odopay in India. (United Nations, 2009 p39 - 41). Research in this area abound for further reading (Rangaswamy, N. 2007); (D´ıaz A & Urquhart (2009); (Hunt, 2001); Kanungo (2003); Salvador et al (2005).
Mobile phones can also be a source of small enterprises. As argued by Madon S. Et al (2007) it supports development as they all share something in common, in that they are;-
- getting symbolic acceptance by the community;
- stimulating valuable social activity in relevant social groups; generating linkage to viable revenue streams; and
- enrolling government support.
4. Nigerian Innovations
Nigeria is better known as the most populous black nation and for her misappropriation of ICT with SPAM than for ICT4D. But the ingenuity of the poor people shine through in the innovative ways they utilize technology - Especially with the mobile phone. In their bid to make ends meet and as a conduit to socio-economic development, the incidence of “low level of political awareness has resulted in meager resources being devoted to promoting” infrastructure in less developed nations (Brown et al, 200). This has informed the peculiarities observed in every Development 2.0 projects around the world. A few Nigerian Examples are described below.
"...The secret of economic growth lies in institutional innovations that are country specific, and that come out of local knowledge and experimentation.”4.1. The “Umbrella People”
— Rodik
For lack of a better name, the ‘umbrella people.’ are the new merchants on the streets or at vantage points allover Nigeria, easily accessible to deliver phone services for a token fee. They sell air time top-up cards and also double as telephone centers, where customers can make and something receive calls. This phone posts serve a central role in the small villages as the operators are a hub of information dissemination drawing all comers towards it.
Figure 1: “Umbrella People” Sitting in the shade waiting for the next customer
4.2. Trade & Commerce Sales – GSM Village
The streets of urban Nigeria is awash with mobile vendors. Their typical merchandise range from cheap 1st generation mobile phones, universal chargers (one size fits all), phone pouches, batteries and their phone accessories.
Figure 2: “Mobile” Phone Shop. Source of Photo AP
Perhaps their most sold items are the casings[4] of all makes of phone –Some more elaborate models around the same commercial activity exist for more buoyant entrepreneurs. Like the one in the picture below.
Figure 3: A small phone shop Source of Photo AP
ICT Research & Development specifically adheres to Northern markets constructs – where technology is designed to be disposable. But here in a Southern example, old phones are repacked in a new casing to make them appear brand new – the culture of not throwing things away is determined by poverty.
4.3. Fix Shops
Interestingly, the most technical outcome of the mobile phone phenomenon is the mobile fix shop, where technicians[5] repair, maintain and unblock network-bound phones. More recently, with the Nigerian music industry on the rise, and the abundance of cheap flash memory and sophisticated phones with media capabilities, Fix shops now upload and manage musical playlist for customers that are not so good at operating their phones.
Figure 4: A technician repairing phones from scrape. Source of Photo AP
4.4. Mobile Print Shops
With upwards of 5 mega pixel cameras at the finger tips of many mobile phone owners, the art of Photography is been redefined. People can now take photos or all kinds at a moments notice - from the bizarre to mundane. The problem however is that most poor people do not have access to quality print shops where they can print these photographs - Enter the Mobile Printer.
Figure 5: Photographers mingle with tourist.
Mobile printers[6] can be seen in public leisure parks, tourist area and any social event. By means of a universal flash adapter, Bluetooth or infrared connection, they transfer pictures from a costumer’s phone to their printers for a fee.
4.5. Mobile Chargers
“Only 15 percent of rural households in Sub-Saharan Africa have access to electricity” (Heeks, R.B. 2008 p. 28). With frequent power cuts that last days on end, poor rural mobile phone users rely on mobile phone chargers to power their phones.
Figure 6: A Charging Station Source of Photo Self.
The operators of this service use fossil fuel power generators and charge a fee based on how long the batteries is charged. Notice there are hardly any phones being charged? That is because most rural people have multiple batteries to ensure that they can still be on air while their alternate batteries are under charge.
4.6. Other Innovations
Other unique innovative ways the poor have used mobile technology include
- Free calls
Mobile service providers offer promotions and freebies to retain existing customers and entice new ones. One such service targets the young by allowing free calls to numbers on the same network from 11pm – 5am. This has seen the poor react in a unique ways. Though African traditions forbid normal activities at night – night is for sleeping. Most poor choose to converse with loved ones, or transact all business deals late to avoid spending money. - ‘Flashing’
Amongst the poor in Nigeria, it is common place to beep and drop before the call is answered. This is termed “Flashing” and is typically used by a subordinate to initiate a call to a superior – by so doing saving money to the subordinate. It is also spurning a new opportunity for traders, especially the airtime top-up vendors who store the names of their customers and send a voucher by text or render a home call to sell the top-up vouchers when they receive a “Flash” from their customers – the memorandum of understanding being not to answer the call, but promptly react by providing the Top-up voucher.
5. Gainers & Losers
Not surprisingly, there are some technological determinist like Heeks who may celebrate every little progress made, as long as it has a technological bearing, while on the flip side there are critics like Willlam Eastly who don’t quite see the connection of struggling poor people with development.
In Heeks view, one “can start to migrate: from seeing [the poor] as victims to seeing them first as consumers, then producers, then innovators of a digital age. And, as we do so, changing our views on the processes and structures of socioeconomic development: from Development 1.0 to Development 2.0.” Heeks. R. B. (2010)
But much like Eastly, Madon et al (2007) I agree with the argument that “there is a significant gap between the original espoused social development goals... and actual usage patterns. As may be observed in the Nigerian cases presented above, challenges to techno-economic globalization come from peoples search for communal or collective identity. – in this wise, the poor are driven by hunger and deprivation to seek novel ways to make a living. The outcomes of these opportunities challenges the norm concerning the barriers to development, vis-à-vis the poor and the digital world-economy. And as such should not be termed as development.
One other point is the expressions being used. for the advocates, there seems to be a blur between the “information poor” and the “financially poor” – a distinction that William Eastly clearly suggest in his epic book “The White Man’s Burden”. Castells also argues’ in his 3rd Vol. that “the rising occasion of the digital divide that widen the gulf of inequalities, may well make way for the emergence of the “4th world”. What has been the value of these projects? What are the evaluation of the costs and benefits of this forms of inclusion? Who is benefiting from it and in what way? All these concerns underpin the spirit of questioning and reassessment of ICT4D [that] is becoming more and more evident. I will elaborate on the many contradictions within these changes bellow.
"The big problem with foreign aid and other western efforts to transform the ‘Rest’ is that people paying the bills are rich people who have verylittle knowledge of poor people.”5.1. “Belle First”
— William Eastly
Much like my token of mercy in the Mpape Top-up story at the beginning of this paper, the immediate benefit derived by this menial work is insignificant. Hunger for food, not information, seems to be the driving force behind all this. This argument is echoed by Eastly in his book “The Burden of the White Man” – where he concluded that the aid money spent by the West on the “Rest” was not enough to bring her out of poverty. So in simple terms, these changes are a desperate measure by desperate people trying to make ends meet. – this further punctuates the development concerns.
5.2. Urban Migration
The rural – urban divide is important for development in any setting. For developing nations, the impact of ICT in the form of mobile phones is a two edged sword, as it empowers the farmers to expand markets and reduce cost (FARA. 2009) on one hand, while encouraging more and more unskilled youths to leave the urban farms for an opportunity to engage in the “mobile service” on the other.
In the Nigerian examples mentioned earlier most of the Umbrella People around large towns have migrated from the rural areas to urban centres where they can easily setup shop – afterall, all that is needed is a few Naira[7] in the pocket, a large umbrella and a stool. Unwittingly depriving the nation of useful human resources who could benefit the nation in other regards – and the other sector suffers. Mobile services and this type of practice is yet another nail in the coffin for agriculture in Nigeria – this trend is fast spreading to other countries in the western coast of Africa.
5.3. Free Trade
Though it has been argued that “the neoliberal assumption that enabling market access in the global world economy by free trade, or the enactment of intellectual property rights will lead to development” (Gallagher, K. 2004, p5) it is all dependent on several factors. As Rodrik suggests, “The secret of economic growth lies in institutional innovations that are country specific, and that come out of local knowledge and experimentation”. – Unfortunately, this is not what we see in the Nigerian example. The innovations are of an adaptive type rather than creative type.
Easterly's argument is that if motivations for change is imposed by outsiders ”almost nothing works -- in either the economic or political sphere.” It's no accident, he argues that,
“the great East Asian economic success stories of recent decades -- Japan, China, Taiwan, South Korea, Thailand -- all took place in countries that were never successfully colonized by the West. These nations evolved their own cultures, rules and disciplines and built an indigenous foundation for rapid economic growth. The region's laggard is the one nation that was colonized: the Philippines”. (Easterly W., 2007)
This no doubt is at a macro level of nations and states, but we can still make the inference by looking observing its instabilities from a micro level and see how outside money will affect it. “It is unclear where [these] current instabilities might lead, but it is not unreasonable to argue that a questioning of neoliberal political and economic policies and the rise of certain forms of development management are helpful in understanding future roles for ICTs in development.” (Silva & Westrup 2009)
5.4. Inscription
Globalised world or not, IS and its constructs are grounded in the needs of the northern nations and as such do not have the cultural values of the south inscribed within their processes. This brings to question the needs like the furtherance of the Neo capitalist ideals that exploit the poor and fatten the rich – (corporations and individuals alike). There is no evidence in this area, and these are just an echo of the small cynic in me.
5.5. Capitalism & Multinationals
Another such factors is the role of local, (regional and national) authorities mediating and regulating markets. Manuel Castell’s 3 volume study on The Information Age: “Economy, Society and Culture” suggests that a new “network society is emerging from current process of change that is both capitalist and informational”... it goes ahead to say that firms (large or small) seek “to sell wherever they can throughout the world, either directly or via their linkage with networks that operate in the world market (Vol. 1 p. 27).
If we observe the above Nigerian initiatives with this lens, it clearly shows that the big multinationals are feasting large, at the expense of the poor. Mobile service providers like MTN, Vodacom, Vain, Globacom, and recently Etisalat to mention but a few. It is even more complicated when one considers that these services locks lock their users in, with poor subscribers spending as much as 50% of their earning on maintaining their phone.
We have already seen how ICT R&D adheres to Northern markets constructs – where technology is designed to be replaced (hidden under the guise of improvements, Designers continue to manufacture newer and newer models and target anywhere where they can make money.
5.6. Institutionalization
Let us returning to Madons et al (2007) criteria for technologies that support development outline earlier - 1) they should be getting symbolic acceptance by the community; 2) stimulating valuable social activity in relevant social groups; 3) generating linkage to viable revenue streams; and 4) enrolling government support. From the forgoing, we can say that for our Nigerian initiatives described above, it is a resounding yes to the first two criteria, whereas, the last two are clearly not evident.
Even though social inclusion is a good thing, the support needed to move things forward are not normally in place - institutionalisation of digital Inclusion (Harris et al (2003); Madon et al (2007). While most “projects are started with funding from local or central government, aid agencies or NGOs” Madon et al (2007), the initiatives described here are financed mostly by individuals or thrifts societies at best. Their argument for institutionalizing them by involving Government, NGOs and Multinational may well lead to their extinction and usher in Castell’s so called “4th World” of the super poor.
Figure 7: An MTN Sponsored Kiosk.
Though this projects are largely backed by the service providers for whom the poor aid by distributing the top-up cards, and as a means of cheap publicity the service providers brand, (see image above) there is largely no evidence of enrolling local, regional or national government support. Or any form of NGO support as evident in Telecenters and other ICT initiatives.
Typical model of these projects is a mediation between the mobile service provider and a go-between (mostly connected rich individuals) who buys in airtime in bulk and pays stipends for the poor to hawk or sell at their stands.
6. Conclusion
“As mobile phones have presented a way to bridge the connectivity gap without expanding the networks of fixed lines, they are likely to have a great impact on economic growth than in developed countries, where fixed lines were widely available when mobile phones were introduced.” (United Nations, 2009)
But we don’t need to look far to see who’s gaining and who’s losing – my central argument here has been that though the capitalist and their advocates see signs of development in these peculiar inclusive interactions, the fact remains that it’s the multinationals and their neo capitalist objectives that seem to enjoy it all. A glimpse on any African street from Egypt to the cape will reveal the lure – a bait set to catch the poor, hook, line and sinker (See figure 8 below). Furthermore, this puts to question the overall aim of the veal that the West want to help the Rest. As Eastly has cited in his work “The Burden of the White Man” real development comes from within – every other intervention may have its own motives and interest. He says if ‘change motivation’ is “imposed from the outside, almost nothing works!
Figure 8: A Sidewalk in Abuja Source of Photo Self.
Though these activities give a false sense of an inclusion in the global world society - the activities that Westerners often point to as inclusive are actually driven by poverty. People congregating like the “seasonal harvest sales culture”[8] to sell collectively. People selling top-up cards on the street, patronizing mobile chargers for lack of electricity at home, People standing under umbrellas and wasting away in the name of a few hundred Naira at the end of the day only to waste almost all of it on accessories or staying connected, people buying phone casing just because they want to keep their old phones looking brand new, etc cannot be termed as “Developing”. All these are informed by poverty and not mobile inclusion.
" ... if ‘change motivation’ is “imposed from the outside, almost nothing works! in either the economic or political sphere… It's no accident that the great East Asian economic success stories of recent decades - Japan, China, Taiwan, South Korea, Thailand - all took place in countries that were never successfully colonized by the West. These nations evolved their own cultures, rules and disciplines and built an indigenous foundation for rapid economic growth.Critics may consider this article a narrow one, and rightly so - judging from the breadth of Development 2.0, it nonetheless throws more light on the resourcefulness of a largely unregulated budding industry of the so-called disenfranchised and poor. “This constellation of mixed media happens within a strictly commercial and entrepreneurial framework of very small businesses with little interest in promoting ICT for development,” Rangaswamy Nimmi (2007)
— William Eastly
With some African nations (Nigeria inclusive) now set to connect to submarine optic fiber optic cables soon, there may still be an opening of the black box of African ingenuity as they explore new options with high bandwidth, video and voice capabilities. It will also be nice to feel what a better infrastructure and environments portends for the poor. If electricity distribution improves, will the Multinational Service providers install and run their own vending machines? and plunge the poor back to poverty? If electricity services improve, will the mobile charger stands disappear altogether? If there is no more easy jobs in the urban centers and Government clamps taxes on the “Umbrella People”, will there be another exodus back to the villages? Can they return to farming after tasting the sweet life of the cities?
This paper, though narrow in its scope has traced development through its ICT4D 1.0 – Development 2.0 by focusing on digital inclusion in a country specific setting. It has been able to illustrate how driven by sheer need to survive, the financially poor are seeking a better life by exploiting mobile technologies. The paper tried to debunk the technological imperative, and pointed more to poverty and the need to stay alive as its main driving force. It is our hope that this may help to promote interest in the negative impacts of digital inclusion in the global world economy. Further research may look into case studies or an ethnographic immersion into these innovative projects, with a view to finding how to connect with NGO and government bodies. And perhaps answer some of the questions posed above. I hope that researchers would find it useful.
7. References
Avgerou, C. (2002) Information Systems and Global Diversity, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Appadurai, A. (1996) Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalisation, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. IN Geoff Walsham, (2001) “Making a World of Difference: IT in a global context” Wiley
Brown et al () “Is Social Inclusion Always a Good Idea” JoDD Vol 14 Mo. 2 http://www.docstoc.com/docs/20364345/Is-Social-Inclusion-Always-a-Good-Idea/ Assessed 20 April 2010.
Castells, M. (1996, 1997, 1998) Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture. Blackwell, Oxford IN Geoff Walsham, (2001) “Making a World of Difference: IT in a global context” Wiley
Diaz Antonio Eduardo Andrade, Cathy Urquhart (2009) “ICTs as a Tool for Cultural Dominance: Prospects for a Two-Way Street” The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries Vol 37, No 2. http://www.ejisdc.org/ojs2/index.php/ejisdc/article/view/536/275 Assessed 19th April 2010.
Easterly, William. (2006) “The White Mans Burden; Why the wests effort to aid the rest have done so much ill and so little good.” New York, N.Y. ; London : Penguin Press.
FARA (Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa) (2009). Inventory of Innovation Farmer Advisory Services. Http://www.iicd.org/files/innovative-Farmer-Advosory-Systems-Fed09.pdf IN United nations, (2009) “Information Economy Report 2009; Trends and Outlook in Turbulent Times”. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.
Gallagher, K. (2005). Globalization and the nation-state: Reasserting policy autonomy for development. IN K. Gallagher (Ed.), Putting development first: The importance of policy space in the WTO and international financial institutions (pp. 1–15). London: Zed Books. IN Leiser Silva and Chris Westrup (2009) “Development and the Promise of Technological Change” Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). Information Technology for Development, Vol. 15 (2) 59–65.
Heeks, R.B. (2008) “ICT4D 2.0: The Next Phase of Applying ICT for International Development” Published by the IEEE Computer Society. Vol. 0018-9162
Heeks, R.B. (2009) Beyond Subscriptions: Actual Ownership, Use and Non-Use of Mobiles in Developing Countries. ICT 4D blog, 2009; http://ict4dblog.wordpress.com
Heeks , R. B. (2010) “Development 2.0: The IT-Enabled Transformation of International Development” Viewpoints; Communications of the ACM, April 2010. Vol 53 No. 4.
Hunt, P. (2001) ‘True stories: telecentres in Latin America and the Caribbean’, Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries, 4(5), 1-17. IN Madon S., Reinhard, N., Roode, D. and Walsham, G. (2007) “Digital Inclusion Projects In Developing Countries: Processes Of Institutionalisation” Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Social Implications of Computers in Developing Countries, São Paulo, Brazil, http://www.ifipwg94.org.br/fullpapers/R0040-1.pdf Accessed 1 may 2010.
ITU. ICT Statistics Database, International Telecommunications Union, Geneva, 2009; http://www.itu.int/IT U-D/icteye/Indicators/Indicators.aspx) IN Richard Heeks, (2010) “Development 2.0: The IT-Enabled Transformation of International Development” Viewpoints; Communications of the ACM, April 2010. Vol 53 No. 4.
Kanungo, S. (2003) ‘Information village: bridging the digital divide in rural India’, in The Digital Challenge: Information Technology in the Development Context, S. Krishna and S. Madon (eds), Ashgate Publishing, Aldershot, 103-123. IN Madon S., Reinhard, N., Roode, D. and Walsham, G. (2007) “Digital Inclusion Projects In Developing Countries: Processes Of Institutionalisation” Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Social Implications of Computers in Developing Countries, São Paulo, Brazil. http://www.ifipwg94.org.br/fullpapers/R0040-1.pdf Accessed 1 may 2010.
Leiser Silva and Chris Westrup (2009) “Development and the Promise of Technological Change” Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). Information Technology for Development, Vol. 15 (2) 59–65.
Madon S., Reinhard, N., Roode, D. and Walsham, G. (2007) “Digital Inclusion Projects In Developing Countries: Processes Of Institutionalisation” Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Social Implications of Computers in Developing Countries, São Paulo, Brazil, http://www.ifipwg94.org.br/fullpapers/R0040-1.pdf Accessed 1 may 2010.
Nickerson, R. S. (1995). Emerging Needs and Opportunities for Human Factors Research. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Rangaswamy Nimmi (2007) “ICT for development and commerce: A case study of internet cafés in India” Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Social Implications of Computers in Developing Countries, São Paulo, Brazil, May 2007 http://www.ifipwg94.org.br/fullpapers/R0071-1.pdf Assessed 22 April, 2010
Rodrik, D. (2004). How to make the trade regime work for development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. IN Leiser Silva and Chris Westrup (2009) “Development and the Promise of Technological Change” Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). Information Technology for Development, Vol. 15 (2) 59–65.
Salvador, T., Sherry, J.W. and Urrutia, A.E. (2005) ‘Less cyber, more café; enhancing existing small businesses across the digital divide with ICTs’, Information Technology for Development, 11(1), 77-95.
Sachs, D. Jeffery (2005) “The End of Poverty; Economic Possibilities for Our Time” Penguin Press; 1st edition
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[1] About £50 Sterling
[2] Mpape is a suburb of the Federal Capital Territory Abuja, Nigeria.
[3] Belle is a pidgin English word for Stomach, Tummy or Food. “Belle First” means is another way of saying nothing is worth doing until one fulfills the first obligation to self – feeding.
[4] The outer shell of the phone with its buttons, but without the circuits and internal components.
[5] Mostly with no formal training, they may have acquired their skills by apprenticeship.
[6] They also take pictures if you don’t have a camera
[7] The Naira is the name of the Nigerian legal tender, it exchanged for N2 - £1 in the early 80s but now exchanges for N242 – £1 . source – www.cenbank.org
[8] Like the Mpape Top-up story at the beginning of this paper, I noticed the similarities with collective harvest time sales practiced by farmers with the urban mobile craze practiced by the poor.
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